1、 Quantum Computing:Concepts,Current State,and Considerations for Congress September 7,2023 Congressional Research Service https:/crsreports.congress.gov R47685 群内每日免费分享5份+最新资料 群内每日免费分享5份+最新资料 300T网盘资源+4040万份行业报告为您的创业、职场、商业、投资、亲子、网赚、艺术、健身、心理、个人成长 全面赋能！添加微信，备注“入群”立刻免费领取 立刻免费领取 200套知识地图+最新研报收钱文案、增长黑客、产
2、品运营、品牌企划、营销战略、办公软件、会计财务、广告设计、摄影修图、视频剪辑、直播带货、电商运营、投资理财、汽车房产、餐饮烹饪、职场经验、演讲口才、风水命理、心理思维、恋爱情趣、美妆护肤、健身瘦身、格斗搏击、漫画手绘、声乐训练、自媒体打造、效率软件工具、游戏影音扫码先加好友，以备不时之需扫码先加好友，以备不时之需行业报告/思维导图/电子书/资讯情报行业报告/思维导图/电子书/资讯情报致终身学习者社群致终身学习者社群关注公众号获取更多资料关注公众号获取更多资料 Congressional Research Service SUMMARY Quantum Computing:Concepts,Cu
3、rrent State,and Considerations for Congress Congress passed and the President signed into law the National Quantum Initiative Act(NQI Act;P.L.115-368;codified at 15 U.S.C.8801 et seq.)in December 2018 to accelerate quantum research and development(R&D)for the economic and national security of the Un
4、ited States and ensure the continued U.S.leadership in quantum information science and its technology applications.Since the enactment of the NQI Act,researchers have made progress in quantum R&D.The authorization of funding for several federal R&D activities under the NQI Act is set to expire at th
5、e end of FY2023.In the NQI Act,Congress defined the term quantum information science as“the use of the laws of quantum physics for the storage,transmission,manipulation,computing,or measurement of information.”Quantum computing,one of technology applications of quantum information science,uses a qua
6、ntum bit,or qubit,as its basic data unit,to harness quantum properties such as superposition and entanglement.By generating and manipulating qubits,a quantum computer is capable of performing certain calculations significantly faster than conventional,non-quantum computers,known as classical compute
7、rs,leading to new ways to solve some complex problems that were previously unsolvable.Researchers have demonstrated the potential for quantum computing applications in areas such as cryptography,machine learning,and scientific and engineering research,particularly using modeling,optimization,and sim
8、ulation.The NQI Act is the primary federal law that supports R&D activities in quantum computing.It has been amended by the National Defense Authorization Act(NDAA)for FY2022(P.L.117-81)and the CHIPS and Science Act(Division B of P.L.117-167).The current act contains four titles,directing(1)the Pres
9、ident to implement an NQI Program with a 10-year plan to accelerate quantum R&D,invest in and coordinate fundamental federal R&D activities,and partner with industry and universities to advance goals and priorities in the NQI Program;(2)the National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST)to carr
10、y out specified R&D activities and convene a stakeholder consortium to identify the future measurement,standards,cybersecurity,and needs for a robust quantum industry;(3)the National Science Foundation(NSF)to carry out a basic research and education program and award grants to establish Multidiscipl
11、inary Centers for Quantum Research and Education;and(4)the Department of Energy(DOE)to administer a number of programs,including a basic research program,National Quantum Information Science Research Centers,a program to accelerate innovation in quantum network infrastructure,and the Quantum User Ex
12、pansion for Science and Technology program.The authorization of funding for the following activities under the NQI Act is set to expire in September 2023:NSFs five university-based Quantum Leap Challenge Institutes,DOEs five national lab-led research centers,and NISTs R&D activities,including the in
13、dustry-led Quantum Economic Development Consortium.Since the enactment of the NQI Act in 2018,researchers have made notable advances in quantum computing in three areas:demonstrating that a quantum processor could execute a complex computational task much faster than a classical supercomputer in an
14、experiment;demonstrating the mitigation of calculation errors caused by the loss of information held by qubitsa major outstanding challenge to quantum computingin an experiment;and scaling up quantum computing processors,thus enhancing their power and potential reliability.Some experts argue that su
15、stained federal R&D investment is necessary to accelerate progress toward practical quantum computing and to maintain the leading role of U.S.researchers and institutions globally.There is less consensus,however,on the specific role the federal government should play in quantum R&D and how resources
16、 and support should be specifically targeted and prioritized.Congress faces policymaking in three areas.First,Congress may decide whether and how to reauthorize or expand federal R&D activities and support under the NQI Act.Second,Congress may choose whether to set policy priorities to ensure U.S.le
17、adership in quantum computing,including(1)accelerating the development of practical quantum computers with near-term,useful applications;(2)supporting the development of an accessible,sustainable,and secure supply chain and domestic manufacturing capabilities;and(3)facilitating the development of a
18、quantum-literate workforce.Congress may also consider whether to set policy priorities to protect national security interests in quantum computing by addressing risks;in particular,the anticipated compromise of current cryptographic systems that protect sensitive data and communications among govern
19、ment agencies,financial institutions,health service providers,and others.R47685 September 7,2023 Ling Zhu Analyst in Telecommunications Policy Quantum Computing:Concepts,Current State,and Considerations for Congress Congressional Research Service Contents Concepts of Quantum Computing.1 The Current
20、State of Quantum Computing.3 Demonstrating Quantum Advantage.3 Increasing Quantum Computing Reliability.3 Achieving Quantum Advantage for Practical Problems.5 Federal Law Concerning Quantum Computing.6 Federal R&D Investments in Quantum Information Science and Technology.8 Policy Considerations for
21、Congress.9 Reauthorizing Federal R&D Activities Under the NQI Act.10 Ensuring Continued U.S.Leadership in Quantum Computing.11 Accelerating the Development of Practical Quantum Computers with Near-Term Applications.11 Supporting the Development of a Quantum Supply Chain.12 Facilitating Workforce Dev
22、elopment for Quantum Computing.13 Protecting National Security Interests in Quantum Computing.14 Tables Table 1.R&D Activities Authorized in the NQI Act,as Amended.9 Table B-1.NSF Quantum Leap Challenge Institutes(QLCI).21 Table B-2.DOE National Quantum Information Science Research Centers.22 Append
23、ixes Key Terms of Quantum Computing Explained.17 NQI Act-Funded R&D Centers.20 Contacts Author Information.22 Quantum Computing:Concepts,Current State,and Considerations for Congress Congressional Research Service 1 ongress passed and the President signed into law the National Quantum Initiative Act
24、(NQI Act;P.L.115-368;codified at 15 U.S.C.8801 et seq.)in December 2018 to accelerate quantum research and development(R&D)for the economic and national security of the United States and ensure the continued U.S.leadership in quantum information science and its technology applications.Since the enac
25、tment of the NQI Act,researchers have made progress in quantum R&D,while the authorization of funding for several federal R&D activities under the NQI Act is set to expire at the end of FY2023.As Congress contemplates whether to reauthorize the NQI Act and continue appropriations,there are a number
26、of questions it may consider:What is the current state of quantum technologies?How far are current R&D activities from delivering useful quantum systems and applications?What resources are needed to accelerate R&D in the field and how should those resources be prioritized?How can federal agencies fu
27、rther coordinate and facilitate authorized R&D efforts in collaboration with industry,academia,and global partners?This report uses one particular quantum information technologyquantum computingto explain concepts such as quantum superposition,entanglement,and qubit,and the current state of the fiel
28、d,including recent technical milestones.The report also provides an overview of relevant federal lawsthe NQI Act as well as quantum provisions in annual National Defense Authorization Acts(NDAAs)and the CHIPS and Science Act.Finally,the report discusses current policy issues that Congress may opt to
29、 consider:(1)reauthorizing federal R&D activities under the NQI Act;(2)ensuring continued U.S.leadership in quantum computing through accelerating near-term applications,developing a robust supply chain,and facilitating workforce development;and(3)assessing and protecting national security interests
30、 with advances in quantum computing.Concepts of Quantum Computing Congress has defined some key terms related to quantum computing in federal law.In the NQI Act,the term quantum information science means“the use of the laws of quantum physics for the storage,transmission,manipulation,computing,or me
31、asurement of information.”1 In the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act(P.L.117-260),the term quantum computer means a computer that“uses the collective properties of quantum states,such as superposition,interference,and entanglement,to perform calculations.”2 In addition to these statut
32、ory definitions,reports issued under the National Quantum Initiative Program established in the NQI Act use the term quantum information science and technology(QIST)to refer to the understanding and applications of quantum information science to design new types of computers,networks,and sensors tha
33、t“enable new speed,precision,or functionality.”3 Specifically,quantum computingpart of the umbrella concept of QISTis an emerging computing paradigm that harnesses the principles of quantum mechanics to represent,store,process,and transmit data.4 In quantum computing the basic data unit is a quantum
34、 bit,or qubit,1 15 U.S.C.8801(6).2 Section 3(9)of P.L.117-260.3 National Quantum Initiative,About the National Quantum Initiative:QISQuantum Information Science,at https:/www.quantum.gov/about/#QIS.See also National Quantum Initiative Advisory Committee,Renewing the National Quantum Initiative:Recom
35、mendations for Sustaining American Leadership in Quantum Information Science,June 2023,p.3,at https:/www.quantum.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/NQIAC-Report-Renewing-the-National-Quantum-Initiative.pdf.4 See Appendix A for the explanation for the terms of quantum networking and quantum sensing.C Qua
36、ntum Computing:Concepts,Current State,and Considerations for Congress Congressional Research Service 2 the equivalent of a bit in conventional,non-quantum computers(also called classical computers).5 A quantum computers data processing power is largely contingent upon the effective and efficient gen
37、eration and manipulation of qubits.6 Scientists have physically created and controlled qubits using superconducting materials and devices,7 or tiny objects such as atoms,electrons,trapped ions,or photons.8 Unlike a classical bit that can represent only one piece of information,either 0 or 1,a qubit
38、can represent more mathematically-rich information by being in a superposition,which can be expressed as a combination of a certain probability of being in 0 and a certain probability of being in 1.9 Qubits can be entangled with one another,so that a quantum computer can manipulate a group of qubits
39、 in a single operation,unlike in classical computing where the same operation needs to be performed on each bit individually.10 Computer algorithms specially designed to take advantage of these unique qubit properties of superposition and entanglement will allow quantum computers to perform multiple
40、 tasks simultaneously and certain calculations significantly faster than classical computers,leading to new ways to solve some complex problems that are intractable for classical computers at any scale(even high-performance supercomputers).11 In short,as the number of qubits increases linearly,the i
41、nformation that the qubits are capable of carrying grows exponentially.In classical computing,doubling the number of bits only doubles its computational power to handle data.See Appendix A for the explanation for the terms of quantum,quantum mechanics,quantum superposition,and quantum entanglement.R
42、esolving computationally complex problems typically requires dealing with a large number of variables that interact in complicated ways,with multiple possible and uncertain outcomes.12 Solving these problems requires a vast amount of computing resources and is time-consuming.Examples include modelin
43、g the behavior of individual atoms in a molecule;simulating all possible interactions when two objects collide with each other;optimizing a set of routes for a fleet of vehicles to deliver packages to customers in different locations;factoring a large composite integer into a product of prime number
44、s in cryptographic algorithms;and identifying fraud patterns in financial transactions.Researchers have demonstrated the potential for quantum computing to solve complex problems in areas such as cryptography,machine learning,and scientific and engineering research,particularly using modeling,optimi
45、zation,and simulation(e.g.,for the study of quantum physics,chemistry,and material science,and for new drug 5 A bit,short for“binary digit,”represents a binary code of either 0 or 1.Letters,numbers,symbols,images,and audio signals are encoded in combinations of bits to represent and store informatio
46、n in classical computers.See Injosoft AB,ASCII Characters,at https:/www.ascii- Amazon AWS,What Is Quantum Computing,Quantum Technologies,2023,at https:/ also Martin Giles,“Explainer:What Is a Quantum Computer?,”MIT Technology Review,January 29,2019,at https:/ Olivier Ezratty,“Perspective on Supercon
47、ducting Qubit Quantum Computing,”The European Physical Journal A,vol.59,no.94(May 2023),p.1,at https:/doi.org/10.1140/epja/s10050-023-01006-7.8 Microsoft,Explore Quantum:Types of Qubits,Azure Quantum,at https:/ See Microsoft,Explore Quantum:Superposition,Azure Quantum,at https:/ Microsoft,Explore Qu
48、antum:Entanglement,Azure Quantum,at https:/ Microsoft,Explore Quantum:The Qubit,Azure Quantum,at https:/ also California Institute of Technology(Caltech),What Is Quantum Computing?,Caltech Science Exchange Series:Quantum Science and Technology,at https:/scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-sci
49、ence-explained/quantum-computing-computers.12 IBM,What Is Quantum Computing?,at https:/ Computing:Concepts,Current State,and Considerations for Congress Congressional Research Service 3 development).13 However,there are practical implementation challenges such as maintaining a qubits superposition a
50、nd correcting calculation errors(discussed in the following sub-section,“Increasing Quantum Computing Reliability”),leading to uncertainty about whether and when quantum computing could be broadly deployed and applied.The Current State of Quantum Computing Since the enactment of the NQI Act in 2018,
