1、U N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N TNEGOTIATING LIBERALIZATION OF TRADE IN AGRICULTURE FOR DEVELOPMENTNEGOTIATING LIBERALIZATION OFTRADE IN AGRICULTUREFOR DEVELOPMENTU N I T E D N AT I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N T R A D E A N D D E V E L O P M E N
2、 TGeneva,2020 2020,United NationsThis work is available open access by complying with the Creative Commons licence created for intergovernmental organizations,available at http:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.The findings,interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the au
3、thors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.The designation employed and the presentation of material on any map in this work do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the legal status
4、 of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Photocopies and reproductions of excerpts are allowed with proper credits.This publication has not been formally edited.United Nations publication issued by the United Nations C
5、onference on Trade and Development.UNCTAD/DITC/TNCD/2019/3eISBN:978-92-1-004889-7 NEGOTIATING LIBERALIZATION OF TRADE IN AGRICULTURE FOR DEVELOPMENTiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis publication is an adaptation of the Manual for Trade Negotiations on Agriculture(UNCTAD/DITC/TNDC/2020/MISC/1),which was prepared
6、,with financial support from the European Union,by a team led by Liping Zhang from the Trade Negotiations and Commercial Diplomacy Branch(TNCDB),Division on International Trade and Commodities(DITC),United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD).Substantive contributions to the manual we
7、re provided by Dr.Manzoor Ahmad,Former Ambassador of Permanent Mission of Pakistan to the World Trade Organization.This publication was finalized by Liping Zhang.Laura Moresino-Borini designed the cover and provided desktop publishing.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSiiiNOTEFor further information on the publication
8、,please contact:Trade Negotiations and Commercial Diplomacy BranchDivision on International Trade and CommoditiesTel.:+41 22 917 57 01Fax:+41 22 917 00 44www.unctad.org/tradenegotiationstncdbunctad.orgivNEGOTIATING LIBERALIZATION OF TRADE IN AGRICULTURE FOR DEVELOPMENTABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMSAMS a
9、ggregate measurement of supportAoA Agreement on Agriculture CAP Common Agricultural PolicyFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGATT General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeGDP gross domestic productLDC least developed countryMFN most-favoured nationNAMA non-agricultural market ac
10、cess NTB non-tariff barrierNTM non-tariff measureSDT special and differential treatmentSPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary MeasuresSSG Special Agricultural Safeguard SSM Special Safeguard Mechanism STE state trading enterpriseTBT technical barriers to tradeTRIPs Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Prop
11、erty RightsTRQ tariff rate quotaUNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development WTO World Trade OrganizationABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMSvPREFACEAs the focal point of the United Nations for the integrated treatment of trade and development and interrelated issues,the UNCTAD secretariat suppor
12、ts developing member States,including the least developed member States,and member States with economies in transition in achieving their beneficial and fuller integration into the international trade and world economy for sustainable development.Through intergovernmental deliberations and consensus
13、-building,research and analysis,and capacity-building technical assistance,UNCTADs work on trade negotiations and commercial diplomacy aims at enhancing the human and institutional capacities of these member States to analyse,formulate and implement appropriate policies and strategies in bilateral,r
14、egional and multilateral trade negotiations to assure development gains from international trade,the trading system and trade negotiations.The purpose of this publication is to assist trade policy makers and trade negotiators in considering their decisions regarding agriculture in pursuing national
15、development objectives.It could also be useful for other stakeholders involved or interested in agricultural negotiations and policies,including the private sector,researchers and non-governmental organizations.The publication seeks to do so by providing a balanced,objective and sound analysis of th
16、e technical and policy issues about the rules and negotiations on trade in agriculture and explore possible ways to address the above-mentioned challenge.It provides an overview of the pattern of agricultural trade,salient features of the Agreement on Agriculture(AoA)in the World Trade Organization(
17、WTO),implementation of commitments and status of current negotiations in various areas with an emphasis on the development dimension of the agriculture rules and negotiations.Three key pillars of trade in agriculture,namely market access,domestic support and export competition,are discussed with an
18、emphasis on the impact of potential policy changes on development.Moreover,this publication covers negotiating issues of stake specific to developing countries and the least developed countries,such as“special and differential treatment”(SDT)for developing and least developed countries,cotton initia
19、tive,public stock-holding,special safeguard mechanism and export restrictions.Options on some key subjects in the agricultural negotiations were also explored.The rationale for subjecting market access,domestic support and export subsidies to GATT disciplines was explained in an appendix and a brief
20、 overview of main features of agriculture in the context of regional trade agreements(RTAs)is provided in another appendix.PREFACEviiCONTENTSAcknowledgements.iiiNote.ivAbbreviations and acronyms.vPreface.viiINTRODUCTION.11.Patterns of agricultural trade from the developing countries perspective.22.L
21、iberalization of trade in agriculture.5I.RULES FOR TRADE IN AGRICULTURE.91.WTO Agreement on Agriculture .102.Country schedules .112.1.Market access.112.2.Domestic support commitments.142.3.Export subsidy and export competition.193.Other provisions in the Agreement on Agriculture .213.1.Peace clause.
22、213.2.Dispute settlement.213.3.Food safety.213.4.Tropical products.223.5.Non-trade concerns.224.Related World Trade Organization Agreements on trade in agriculture.22II.CURRENT TRADE NEGOTIATIONS ON AGRICULTURE .251.Mandate of negotiations.262.Phases of negotiations.262.1.Cancn Ministerial Conferenc
23、e 2003.262.2.The Framework Agreement of July 2004.272.3.The Draft Agriculture Text of 2006.282.4.Fourth revision of the Draft Agriculture Text in 2008.282.5.Bali Ministerial Conference 2013.282.6.Nairobi Ministerial Conference 2015.282.7.Recent negotiations.293.Negotiations on issues requested by de
24、veloping countries .303.1.Sectoral initiative in favour of cotton.303.2.Public stockholding.313.3.Special and differential treatment.313.4.Special safeguard mechanism .333.5.Export restrictions.333.6.Summary of key questions,issues,options or approaches for future negotiations.34Endnotes.43CONTENTSi
25、xList of figuresFigure 1.Trade in agricultural products,20022017.3Figure 2.World merchandise trade by major product group,20062016.3Figure 3.Share of developing country agricultural exports in world food exports,20012017.4Figure 4.Share of processed and unprocessed agricultural exports,20022017.4Fig
26、ure 5.Heterogeneity across regions in the share of world exports of food items,20012017.5Figure 6.Shares of global food exports in different directions,19952016.6Figure 7.Applied and bound trade weighted tariff average and tariff rate quotas.13Figure 8.Simple average fill rates by tariff quota,20072
27、016.14Figure 9.Green Box expenditures for countries with the highest expenditures,2016.15Figure 10.Notified Blue Box payments,20072012.17Figure 11.Composition of domestic support for selected countries,since 2001.18Figure 12.Export subsidies by the European Union,by Sector,19902010.20Figure 13.Timel
28、ine of action on multilateral trade negotiations in agriculture.27List of boxesBox 1.The aggregate measurement of support .16Box 2.Calculations on the aggregate measurement of support.17Box 3.Doha mandate.26Box 4.Significance of cotton initiative.30List of tablesTable 1.The three pillars.10Table 2.E
29、uropean Union bound and most-favoured nation applied rates .13Table 3.Domestic support provisions in the Agreement on Agriculture.15Table 4.Commodity grouping for export-subsidy commitments.19Table 5.Key questions,issues,options or approaches for future negotiations.34AppendicesAppendix 1.Rationale
30、of key pillars of Agreement on Agriculture.38Appendix 2.Main features of negotiations on agriculture in regional trade agreements.40Appendix 3.Member groups active during the current agricultural negotiations.41xNEGOTIATING LIBERALIZATION OF TRADE IN AGRICULTURE FOR DEVELOPMENTINTRODUCTIONAgricultur
31、e plays an important role in low-and middle-income economies.According to the World Bank,1 it accounts for around 70 per cent of employment and more than 16 per cent of GDP of least developed countries(LDCs).In middle-income countries,its contribution to employment is 27 per cent,while for high-inco
32、me countries it is only 4 per cent.Seventy-four per cent of the population of LDCs and 54 per cent of middle-income countries live in rural areas.Furthermore,around 95 per cent of all farmers and two-thirds of the worlds poor live in rural areas in developing countries.However,agricultures contribut
33、ion to the GDP and employment declines with the level of development.In addition,agricultural goods are important not only for the income side but also for the expenditure side.In general,the poor country or household,spend the higher share of expenditure on food.This makes food prices relatively mo
34、re important for poor households than for the rich.In certain regions,a large share of the population is undernourished.The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates2 that about 815 million people of the 7.6 billion people in the world,or 10.7 per cent,were suffering from chr
35、onic undernourishment in 2016.Almost all the hungry people live in lower-middle-income countries.There are also 11 million people undernourished in developed countries.The United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund finds that more than a half number of deaths in children aged under 5 have
36、 been attributed to malnutrition.3Although many countries argue that food security will only be achieved through self-sufficiency,others claim that it can also be achieved through an appropriate combination of domestic production and imports.Economic access to food is as important as physical access
37、.Certain constraints,such as a lack of foreign currency and the wish to limit dependency on imports pushed countries towards policies that stimulate domestic production in developing countries.In the course of development,agricultural productivity has increased and the share of employment and output
38、 in agriculture has slightly decreased.In high-income countries,employment in agriculture accounts for only four per cent and the contribution to GDP is only two per cent.Globally,agricultural production contributes some 4 per cent of the gross national product,a share that has been declining over t
39、he past few decades(e.g.in 1970 it was more than 10 per cent).4 Because of the importance of agriculture in developing countries and the comparative advantage that many of them have in the production of agricultural goods,this sector could be an engine of economic growth,especially in poor developin
40、g countries.1.Patterns of agricultural trade from the developing countries perspectiveThe value of agricultural trade has tripled in the last 15 years i.e.,from$0.5 billion in 2002 to around$150 billion in 2017.But its share in the overall global trade has remained low.In 2002,agricultural trade acc
41、ounted for 7.6 per cent of world merchandise trade.By 2016,it increased to 9 per cent(Figure 1).Although trade in agricultural products is relatively small component of world trade,it follows the pattern of global trade:it also experienced a drop during the recession in 2009 and later in 20152016.Th
42、e increase in value of trade in agriculture after 2009 has been strong compared with that for industrial goods.However,both product groups have experienced a drop since 2014(Figure 2).As a group,developing countries account for 40 per cent of global agricultural trade,a share that has gradually incr
43、eased over time(Figure 3),except for some fluctuations during 2013 and 2014.Over time,the structure of agricultural trade has also changed.The proportion of processed food items has increased while that of unprocessed has remained stagnant.This pattern holds for all country groups,irrespective of in
44、come levels(Figure 4).Most of the growth in agricultural trade comes from an increase in trade in processed agricultural products.Although growth rates have increased in both product types,the growth rates for processed goods are higher than for unprocessed goods.A shift towards more processed agric
45、ultural products means there is greater specialization in the value-adding process.In general,countries with a lower share of processed agriculture products tend to be low-income while those with higher share of processed food are mostly high-and middle-income countries.The share of developing count
46、ries in the world food trade has increased rapidly from 2006 onwards but has recently become steady,most likely due to strengthening in non-tariff measures.5 Developing countries have gradually become large importers of agricultural products as well.In 2015,these countries absorbed 35 per cent of ag
47、ro-trade imports and produced a similar fraction of exports.NEGOTIATING LIBERALIZATION OF TRADE IN AGRICULTURE FOR DEVELOPMENT2Figure 1.Trade in agricultural products,20022017Source:World Integrated Trade Solutions(WITS).Notes:The chart shows the share of agricultural exports in total world exports(
48、on left side vertical axis)and the total value of agricultural exports(on right side vertical axis)over time.1098765432101 6001 4001 2001 0008006004002000Share in total trade(in percentage)Value(in US$bilions)2006200720082009201020112002200320042005201220132014201520162017Figure 2.World merchandise
49、trade by major product group,20062016(2006=100)Source:WTO World Trade Statistical Review,2017.2001751501251007520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016Agricultural goodsManufacture goodsINTRODUCTION3Figure 3.Share of developing country agricultural exports in world food exports,20012017(in perce
50、ntage)Source:Calculation based on UN Comtrade.45403530252015105020062007200820092010201120012002200320042005201220132014201520162017Figure 4.Share of processed and unprocessed agricultural exports,20022017(in percentage)Source:WTO Symposium on Agricultural Trade,2018.https:/www.wto.org/english/trato