1、Insight ReportCities,Urban Development&Urban Services PlatformIn Collaboration with PwCMaking Affordable Housing a Reality in CitiesJune 2019ForewordExecutive SummaryChapter 1 IntroductionChapter 2 Supply-Side Challenges:Land Acquisition and Securing TitleChapter 3 Supply-Side Challenges:Land Use Zo
2、ning and RegulationsChapter 4 Supply-Side Challenges:Funding Affordable HousingChapter 5 Supply-Side Challenges:Design Considerations and Construction Costs of Affordable HousingChapter 6 Demand-Side Challenges:An OverviewChapter 7 RecommendationsReferencesAcknowledgementsEndnotes3 45714182428333944
3、5859ContentsWorld Economic Forum91-93 route de la CapiteCH-1223 Cologny/GenevaSwitzerlandTel.:+41(0)22 869 1212Fax:+41(0)22 786 2744Email:contactweforum.orgwww.weforum.org 2019 World Economic Forum.All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
4、 means,including photocopying and recording,or by any information storage and retrieval system.3Making Affordable Housing a Reality in CitiesA world in which only a few can afford housing is not sustainable.Everyone deserves a safe place to live:it can transform the quality of life of individuals an
5、d families.Today,however,most cities around the world are facing major challenges in providing safe and adequate housing for their people,especially cities that are growing rapidly and where the affordable housing options are limited.Even those who earn steady wages are unable to buy or rent afforda
6、ble housing.Rents remain alarmingly high and out of line with incomes forcing many to pay more than 50%of their income each month on housing.Key workers such as teachers,police officers,firefighters and nurses cannot afford to live near the communities they serve,instead having to bear the costs in
7、time and money of commuting.The extent of the affordable housing challenge,however,varies across geographies.The housing market is affected not only by market conditions but also by socio-political factors,environmental factors and the regulatory landscape of countries and cities.Finding solutions i
8、n a particular city requires a broader understanding of what constitutes affordability and the factors that affect it.Ensuring the healthy functioning of the housing market requires actions that address interdependencies on the supply-side while stimulating interventions on the demand-side.This Insi
9、ght Report explores both supply-side and demand-side dynamics.On the supply side,these include land acquisition and regulation,upgrading property tenures,financing models,and design and development costs.On the demand side,issues include how to determine eligibility for affordable housing,the range
10、of tenure models for different demographics,and provisioning appropriate access to credit.The Insight Report carefully analyzes each of these challenges for different stakeholders and provides them with specific recommendations to impact the city housing market in a city.It guides decision makers to
11、wards strategic interventions and long-term reforms that can reduce dependence on government support systems and incentivize more commercially viable affordable housing through policies and practices that address systemic gaps in the housing value chain.Reforms are required at each stage of the hous
12、ing value chain,from securing land,engaging local communities,to building and improving homes that are safe,resilient and sustainable.A multi-stakeholder environment is needed to address calls for action from all entities involved local(state and federal)government,private sector and civil society.C
13、ities must act to address affordability if they want to avoid a mass exodus of key workers and other talented individuals.Communities develop only when the needs of all residents are met.Ensuring affordable homes is a critical step in that direction,and this Insight Report provides a holistic perspe
14、ctive on the ongoing discussion about how best to do so.Anil Menon,Gregory Hodkinson,Hazem Galal,Jonathan Reckford&Alice Charles ForewordJonathan Reckford,CEO,Habitat for HumanityAlice Charles,Lead,Cities,Urban Development&Urban Services,World Economic ForumHazem GalalGlobal Leader,Cities and Local
15、Government,PwCAnil MenonManaging Board Member,World Economic ForumGregory Hodkinson,Senior Adviser to the Chairman,Arup4Making Affordable Housing a Reality in CitiesFor close to a decade,Calgary has consistently been cited as one of five most livable cities in the world.Our high quality of life,abun
16、dant resources and economic opportunity have attracted migrants from all over the world,and the face of the city is now changing rapidly.At the City of Calgary we ensure access to basic urban infrastructure and services like the 60,000 Calgarians who access our reduced fare Low Income Transit Pass a
17、s well as safe and affordable housing,regardless of their income.Although affordable compared to many other North American cities for those purchasing their home,Calgary still has a considerable non-market housing deficit.Only 3.6 per cent of our housing is non-market,compared to the national averag
18、e of 6 per cent for other urban centers.Calgary is addressing this imbalance through the innovative initiatives in our affordable housing strategy,as we work to encourage the development of more supply across the housing spectrum.Recognizing the pent-up demand among affordable housing providers,Calg
19、ary began selling surplus City-owned land to non-profit providers at book value,imbedded a full-time affordable housing coordinator in our Planning department to facilitate applications,funded a grant program to rebate planning and development fees and expanded our advocacy efforts to other orders o
20、f government.The result?Thousands of additional affordable units are now under construction or are in our development pipeline.Given my work on the affordable housing file in Calgary,I am heartened that the World Economic Forum has undertaken an initiative taking such a holistic approach to the affo
21、rdable housing challenge,covering both the supply and demand sides.I found this report useful and hope it proves equally helpful for other cities around the world that are facing similar challenges.I also hope cities are able to establish a much broader dialogue involving different levels of governm
22、ent,civil society and the private sector,focused on improving the housing supply in ways that combine affordability with commercial viability.Naheed Nenshi,Mayor of CalgaryForeword5Making Affordable Housing a Reality in CitiesExecutive summaryCities are growing at an unprecedented rate,presenting an
23、 incredible opportunity for the development of local economies.However,their residents need good,affordable housing and this remains a challenge around the world.Well-functioning property markets can act as a financial springboard for enterprises and job creation.An enabling environment for affordab
24、le housing can be developed with the right infrastructure,investment and macroeconomic policies targeted towards social and financial inclusion.The challenge of affordability requires not just short-term fixes but also long-term strategies.Solutions will need to address both the supply side and the
25、demand side of the housing market,and involve public-sector,private-sector and non-profit stakeholders.Affordability:exploring the problemChapter 1 unpacks the notion of“affordability”:It is not only about being able to afford to buy or rent a house,but also being able to afford to live in it.This g
26、oes beyond meeting expenses related to operations and maintenance;it also involves considerations of transport,infrastructure and services.If a house is cheap enough to buy and run,but located far from livelihood opportunities or amenities such as schools,it cannot be said to be affordable.The reaso
27、ns for a lack of affordability vary from city to city,but commonly include housing costs rising faster than incomes,supply of houses not keeping up with demand,scarcity of land,and demographic changes such as population growth,ageing and changes in household composition.Supply-side challenge 1:land
28、acquisition and titling Housing investments depend on land having a legal title and security through tenure and property rights.Chapter 2 explores innovative land acquisition strategies such as:Land-pooling,where an undeveloped piece of land is exchanged for a smaller,developed piece of land,and tra
29、deable land quotas,in which agricultural land on the periphery of a city can be converted if other land is opened up for agriculture beyond the citys boundaries.Focusing on ensuring property rights for example,the right not to be forcibly evicted rather than formalizing property titles.Partnerships
30、between community land trusts,which own and steward land on behalf of a community,and municipal land banks,which acquire vacant land and prepare it for development.Supply-side challenge 2:land useCity governments generally use two tools zoning and regulation to shape where and how new houses can be
31、built.Chapter 3 explores the pros and cons associated with greenfield and brownfield development and discussesstrategies such as:Transit-oriented development,in which expansion of cities is planned around new urban transport infrastructure.Algorithmic zoning,with incentives for developers based on a
32、ssessment of what is needed to maximize the vibrancy of a community.Mixed-use development and inclusionary zoning,to ensure neighbourhoods have a mix of income levels and proximity to jobs and services.Taxation solutions,such as taxing the underlying value of land rather than the value of the proper
33、ty on it,and imposing a tax on vacant land or properties.Supply-side challenge 3:securing finance While some investors are starting to see affordable housing as a low-risk addition to their portfolio as demand from key workers in public services is likely to remain strong through recessions the priv
34、ate sector naturally focuses on market-rate housing,where returns are expected to be higher.Chapter 4 discusses options for funding the development of affordable houses,including:Government provision of tax incentives,grants or exemptions for private developers to develop certain types of property o
35、r develop in designated areas.Government-guaranteed bonds providing cheap,long-term finance to community-based organizations to develop and manage affordable housing.Employing investment models such as microfinance,real estate investment trusts(REITs),impact investing and Islamic finance.Supply-side
36、 challenge 4:design and constructionWhile land is often the biggest cost in developing housing,construction costs are not far behind and sometimes even greater.Chapter 5 looks into how housing can be made more affordable by bringing these costs down.Approaches include:Minimizing bureaucracy,as the f
37、ees and costs of complying with complicated building codes can add significantly to project cost.There is potential for technology to provide solutions here.Emerging construction technologies such as 3D printing,robot bricklayers,self-driving bulldozers and solutions related to the internet of thing
38、s(IoT)and artificial intelligence(AI)that could bring down operational and maintenance costs.Alternative construction materials such as fly ash,cement-coated expanded polystyrene panels,glass fibre-reinforced gypsum,cross-laminated timber and compressed earth blocks.Public-private partnerships on tr
39、aining to address skills shortages in the construction sector.6Making Affordable Housing a Reality in CitiesDemand-side challengesShould strategies try to make housing affordable for everyone,or target assistance at certain sections of the population?And how should targeted populations be defined:by
40、 income level,age,number of children or employment as key workers?Chapter 6 delves into these and other challenges on the demand side of affordable housing,including:Different forms of tenure,going beyond a binary choice between rental and homeownership,can offer more options to city residents strug
41、gling to afford a house.They include build-to-rent,shared ownership and shared equity ownership.Rent controls offer the potential to protect tenants,but must also take care not to restrict the future supply of properties to rent by unfairly disadvantaging landlords.Demand-side interventions need to
42、guard against the risk of helping in the short term but not the long term.Mechanisms to keep units affordable on resale include subsidy recapture and subsidy retention.Recommendations Effective strategies need to address both supply and demand side challenges.The final chapter sets out recommendatio
43、ns for the three main interdependent actors:City governments have to define their long-term plans for increasing the supply of affordable housing,balancing the need to minimize urban sprawl with the limits of the viability of building denser and taller.They need to address political considerations t
44、hat could hold back the development of new affordable housing,ensure that housing developments have adequate infrastructure,explore ways to improve the situations of those living in informal housing,and create a strong regulatory enabling environment for the private and non-profit sectors.Private-se
45、ctor players need to keep abreast of emerging solutions in construction techniques and materials,work with governments to ensure an adequate flow of skilled labour,and consider new solutions in financing and innovative tenure models.Non-profit organizations such as community land trusts,housing coop
46、eratives and microfinance institutions have a critical role in bridging the gap between governments and the private sector to improve the affordability of housing,as well as working with individuals to help them understand their options and make informed decisions.7Making Affordable Housing a Realit
47、y in CitiesUnprecedented rates of urbanization and population growth have made housing affordability a concern around the world:Introduction1According to UN figures,only 13%of the worlds cities have affordable housing(UN HABITAT,2016).In 2014,McKinsey estimated that 330 million urban households were
48、 living in substandard housing or were financially stretched by housing costs(McKinsey Global Institute,2014).This is projected to rise to nearly 440 million households,or 1.6 billion people,by 2025 and 2.5 billion people by 2050.13%In Africa,over 50%ofthe population live in substandardconditions;wh
49、ereas in India and China,nearly a quarter of the population live in informal ettlements(Florida,2017).Millennials across the world are spending more on housing than any previous generation,with a lower quality of life(Judge&Tomlinson,2018).50%MillennialsBoomersGen Xless affordable28%Based on median
50、affordability(median price-to-income ratio),citiesin less developed countries arefound to be significantly lessaffordable(28%less affordable)thancities in more developed countries.(Kallergis,et al.,2018)8Making Affordable Housing a Reality in CitiesPeople come to cities looking for opportunity and b