1、Translation:Protein Synthesis,Protein synthesis machinery:mRNAtRNAAminoacyl-tRNA synthetasesRibosomeGenetic code:Cracking the genetic codeCodon usageTranslation reaction:InitiationElongation TerminationDifference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes in translationProtein sorting Inhibition of protein
2、synthesis by antibiotics,Outline,Peptide bond formation,Translation:biosynthesis of proteins,Translation is among the most conserved mechanisms across all organismsIt is the most energetically costly for the cell.Protein synthesis consumes about 80%energy of the cell50,000 ribosomes per E.coli cellR
3、ibosomes are the most complex polymerases.Molecular weight of a ribosome in E.coli is 2.7 million DaltonsTwo thirds of the ribosome is RNA;Ribosomes can been see under EMTranslation requires:amino acids,mRNAs,tRNAs,aminoacyl tRNA synthetases,ribosomes,Protein synthesis machinery,The three roles of R
4、NA in protein synthesis.Messenger RNA(mRNA)is translated into protein by the joint action of transfer RNA(tRNA)and the ribosome,which is composed of numerous proteins and two major ribosomal RNA(rRNA)molecules.,Three roles of RNA in translation,Messenger RNA(mRNA)carries the genetic information copi
5、ed from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code words,each of which specifies a particular amino acid.Transfer RNA(tRNA)is the key to deciphering the code words in mRNA.Each type of amino acid has its own type of tRNA,which binds it and carries it to the growing end of a polypeptide chain if
6、the next code word on mRNA calls for it.The correct tRNA with its attached amino acid is selected at each step because each specific tRNA molecule contains a three-base sequence that can base-pair with its complementary code word in the mRNA.Ribosomal RNA(rRNA)associates with a set of proteins to fo
7、rm ribosomes.These complex structures,which physically move along an mRNA molecule,catalyze the assembly of amino acids into protein chains.They also bind tRNAs and various accessory molecules necessary for protein synthesis.Ribosomes are composed of a large and small subunit,each of which contains
8、its own rRNA molecule or molecules.,mRNA,ORF(open reading frame):The protein coding region(s)of each mRNA is composed of a continous non-overlapping string of codons called an open reading frame(ORF).Each ORF specifies a single protein and starts with a start codon and ends with a stop codon.In bact
9、eria,start codons include 5-AUG-3(the most common),5-GUG-3 and 5-UUG-3.In eukaryotes,the start codon is always 5-AUG-3.The start codon not only specifies the first amino acids(aa)to be added,but it also defines the reading frame for subsequent codons.Eukaryotic mRNAs mostly contain a single ORF(mono
10、cistronic mRNA),Prokaryotic mRNA usually contain multiple ORF(polycistronic mRNAs).Prokaryotic mRNAs have a ribosome binding site(RBS)also called Shine-Dalgarno sequence.This sequence is complementary to the 16S rRNA of the small ribosomal subunit.Eukaryotic mRNAs have a 5 cap that binds ribosomes w
11、ith the help of initiator proteins.Once bound,the ribosome scans the mRNA until it finds the first 5-AUG-3.Translation in eukaryotes is enhaced by the Kozak sequence:GCCACCAUGG and by the presence of a poly A tail.,mRNA,tRNA,tRNAs are about 75-95 nucleotides long.The sequence from tRNA to tRNA varie
12、s,but there are common features to all tRNAs:a 3 terminus 5-CCA-3(where the aa attaches),the presence of unusual bases and a common secondary structure.The secondary structure resembles a cloverleaf where there is an acceptor stem(5-CCA-3),three stem loops and the anticodon loop.Attachment of aa to
13、tRNA.tRNA molecules are charged when they have an aa attached.Adenylylation:an amino acid reacts with ATP and becomes adenylylated(AMP-aa).A pyrophaosphate is released.This reaction is catalyzed by the aa specific tRNA synthetase.tRNA charging:The adenylylated aa which remains tightly bound to the s
14、ynthetase reacts with the tRNA.The energy released when the bond is broken helps drive the formation of the peptide bond that links aa to each other.,Structure of tRNAs.(a)The primary structure of yeast alanine tRNA(tRNAAla),the first such sequence determined.This molecule is synthesized from the nu
15、cleotides A,C,G,and U,but some of the nucleotides,shown in red,are modified after synthesis:D=dihydrouridine,I=inosine,T=thymine,Y=pseudouridine,and m=methyl group.Although the exact sequence varies among tRNAs,they all fold into four base-paired stems and three loops.The partially unfolded molecule
16、 is commonly depicted as a cloverleaf.Dihydrouridine is nearly always present in the D loop;likewise,thymidylate,pseudouridylate,cytidylate,and guanylate are almost always present in the TYCG loop.The triplet at the tip of the anticodon loop base-pairs with the corresponding codon in mRNA.Attachment
17、 of an amino acid to the acceptor arm yields an aminoacyl-tRNA.(b)Computergenerated three-dimensional model of the generalized backbone of all tRNAs.Note the L shape of the molecule.,Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases from all organisms belong to one of two classes depending on the amino acid they are respo
18、nsible for.Class I enzymes are generally(though not always)monomeric,and attach the carboxyl of their target amino acid to the 2 OH of adenosine 76 in the tRNA molecule.Class II enzymes are generally dimeric or tetrameric,and attach their amino acid to the 3 OH of their tRNA,except for phenylalaniny
19、l-tRNA synthetase which uses the 2 OH.Each of the 20 aa is attached to the appropriate tRNA by a single dedicated tRNA synthetase.The same tRNA synthetase is responsible for charging all tRNAs for a particular aa(for example when that aa has more than one codon).Thus most organisms have 20 different
20、 tRNA synthetases.The acceptor stem and the anticodon loop of the tRNA specify to the tRNA synthetase which aa is to be added to the tRNA.,Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases,tRNA charging by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase in two steps,The amino acid is attached to the 3OH of the ribose of the 3 terminal A(in the
21、 CCA),(proofreading),(proofreading),Amino acids are coupled to tRNAs through ester linkages to either the 2-or the 3-hydroxyl group of the 3-adenosine residue.A linkage to the 3-hydroxyl group is shown.,Aminoacyl-tRNA synthesis,Amino acid+ATP+tRNA+H2O Aminoacyl-tRNA+AMP+2Pi,The ribosome contains rib
22、osomal RNAs and proteins.The ribosome directs protein synthesis.The ribosome consists of a large and small subunits.The large subunit contains the peptidyl transferase center(catalyses the formation of the peptide bond),and the factor bidnign center.The small subunit contains the decoding center.In
23、bacteria,the small subunit is 30S and the large subunit is 50S.The whole ribosome is 70S.In eukaryotes,the small subunit is 40S,the large subunit is 60S and the whole ribosome is 80S.An mRNA bearing multiple ribosomes is known as a polyribosome or polysome.A single ribosome is in contact with about
24、30 nucleotides,but the large size of the ribosome allows a density of 1 ribosome for every 80 nucleotides of mRNA.The ability of multiple ribosomes to function on a single mRNA explain the relatively limited abundance of mRNA in the cell(about 1-5%of total RNA).The ribosome contains 3 tRNA binding s
25、ites:The A site is the binding site for the aminoacylated tRNA;the P site is the binding site for the peptidyl-tRNA;the E site(for Exit)is the binding site for the uncharged tRNA.The mRNA enters and exits the decoding center through 2 narrow channels in the small subunit.,Ribosome,The general struct
26、ure of ribosomes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.In all cells,each ribosome consists of a large and a small subunit.The two subunits contain rRNAs of different lengths,as well as a different set of proteins.All ribosomes contain two major rRNA molecules(dark red)23S and 16S rRNA in bacteria,28S and 18
27、S rRNA in eukaryotes and one or two small RNAs(light red).The proteins are named L1,L2,etc.,and S1,S2,etc.,depending on whether they are found in the large or the small subunit,RNA constitutes nearly two-thirds of the mass of the ribosomes.Ribosomal RNAs(5S,16S,and 23S rRNA)play a central role in pr
28、otein synthesis Proteins are synthesized in the amino-to-carboxyl directionMessenger RNA Is translated in the 5-to-3 directionIn prokaryotes,the start signal Is AUG(or GUG)preceded by several bases that pair with 16S rRNA Ribosomes have three tRNA-binding sites that bridge the 30S and 50S subunits T
29、he growing polypeptide chain is transferred between tRNAs on peptide-bond formation site of the large subunitOnly the codon-anticodon interactions determine the amino acid that is incorporated,Ribosomes are the molecular machines that coordinate the interplay of charged tRNAs,mRNA,and proteins that
30、leads to protein synthesis,The H.marismortui large ribosomal subunit.The rRNA(in gray)forms the core.The ribosomal proteins(yellow)are mostly on the surface.Two thirds of the ribosomal mass is rRNA.In this view,the surface of the subunit that interacts with the small subunit faces the reader.RNA is
31、shown in gray.The backbones of the proteins visible are rendered in gold.The particle is approximately 250across.,Total RNA from HeLa cells was prepared using different methods as shown in lanes 1,2 and 3.RNA Marker(M)used ranged from 0.2 bp-10 kb.,Total RNA isolated from a human cell line,HeLa cell
32、s,Cracking the genetic code,Breaking the entire genetic code by use of chemically synthesized trinucleotides.20 ribosome-free bacterial extracts were prepared each containing all possible aminoacyl-tRNAs(tRNAs with an amino acid attached).In each sample,a different amino acid was radioactively label
33、ed(green);the other 19 amino acids were bound to tRNAs but were unlabeled.Aminoacyl-tRNAs and trinucleotides passed through a nitrocellulose filter(left),but ribosomes were retained by the filter(center)and would bind trinucleotides and their cognate tRNAs(right).Each possible trinucleotide was test
34、ed separately for its ability to attract a specific tRNA by adding it with ribosomes to samples from each of the 20 aminoacyl-tRNA mixtures.The sample was then filtered.If the added trinucleotide caused the radiolabeled aminoacyl-tRNA to bind to the ribosome,then radioactivity would be detected on t
35、he filter(a positive test);otherwise,the label would pass through the filter(a negative test).By synthesizing and testing all possible trinucleotides,the researchers were able to match all 20 amino acids with one or more codons(e.g.,phenylalanine with UUU as shown here).,Assigning codons using synth
36、etic mRNAs containing a single ribonucleotide.Addition of such a synthetic mRNA to a bacterial extract that contained all the components necessary for protein synthesis except mRNA resulted in synthesis of polypeptides composed of a single type of amino acid as indicated.Poly-G did not work for this
37、 experiment.See M.W.Nirenberg and J.H.Matthei,1961,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA 47:1588.,Example of how the genetic code-an overlapping,commaless triplet code-can be read in two different frames.If translation of the mRNA sequence shown begins at two different upstream start sites(not shown),then two over
38、lapping reading frames are possible;in this case,the codons are shifted one base to the right in the lower frame.As a result,different amino acids are encoded by the same nucleotide sequence.Many instances of such overlaps have been discovered in viral and cellular genes of prokaryotes and eukaryote
39、s.It is theoretically possible for the mRNA to have a third reading frame.,(a)When a synthetic mRNA with alternating A and C residues was added to a protein-synthesizing bacterial extract,the resulting polypeptide contained alternating threonine and histidine residues.This finding is compatible with
40、 the two alternative codon assignments shown.(Note that alternating residues yield the same sequence of triplets regardless of which reading frame is chosen.)(b)To determine which codon assignment shown in(a)is correct,a second mRNA consisting of AAC repeats was tested.This mRNA,which can be read in
41、 three frames,yielded the three types of polypeptides shown.Since only the ACA codon was common to both experiments,it must encode threonine;thus CAC must encode histidine in(a).The assignments AAC=asparagine(Asn)and CAA=glutamine(Gln)were derived from additional experiments.,Assigning codons using
42、mixed polynucleotides,Francis Crick(center)with Gobind Khorana and Marianne Grunberg-Manago.Khorana unraveled much of the genetic code after Nirenbergs initial breakthrough,which was based on Grunberg-Managos pioneering research.Gobind Khorana showed that tri-and tetra-nucleotides could be polymeriz
43、ed into polymers with repeating sequences that could be used in cell-free in vitro translation assays.Photo was taken at the 1966 Symposium on protein synthesis at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.,Standard genetic code,The codon usage trend is highly correlated to the accepting tRNA population of indi
44、vidual organisms;Codon usage may regulate gene expression at the translation level;A list of codon usage of different organisms can be found at the website:http:/www.kazusa.or.jp/codon/,http:/www.kazusa.or.jp/codon/,Codon usage for Leu and Arg in 5 different organisms,Translation reaction,The riboso
45、me is a factory for the manufacture of polypeptides.Amino acids are carried into the ribosome,one at a time,connected to transfer RNA molecules(blue).Each amino acid is joined to the growing polypeptide chain,which detaches from the ribosome only once it is completed.This assembly line approach allo
46、ws even very long polypeptide chains to be assembled rapidly and with impressive accuracy.,Ribosome is the assembly line for protein production,Initiation of translation in eukaryotes The translation always begins with a Met.When a ribosome dissociates at the termination of translation,the 40S and 6
47、0S subunits associate with initiation factors eIF3 and eIF6,forming complexes that can initiate another round of translation.Steps 1&2:sequential addition of the indicated components to the 40S subunit-eIF3 complex forms the initiation complex.Step 3:the initiation complex scans the mRNA until the s
48、tart codon AUG is found.Step 4:association of the 60S subunit forms the 80S ribosome ready to translate the mRNA.Two initiation factors,eIF2 and eIF5,are GTP-binding proteins,those bound GTP is hydrolyzed during translation initiation.,Elongation during translation in eukaryotes,Once the 80S ribosom
49、e with Met-tRNAiMet in the ribosome P site is assembled,a complex bearing the second amino acid(aa2)coded by the mRNA binds to the A site(step 1).Following a conformational change in the ribosome induced by hydrolysis of the GTP in EF1a.GTP(step 2),the large rRNA catalyzes peptide bond formation bet
50、ween Meti and aa2(step 3).Hydrolysis of GTP in EF2.GTP causes conformational change in the ribosome that results in its translocation one codon along the mRNA and shifts the free tRNAiMet to the E site and the tRNA with the bound peptide to the P site(step 4).The cycle can begin again with binding o
